Verpa bohemica

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'''''Verpa bohemica''''' is a species of [[fungus]] in the family [[Morchellaceae]]. The [[synonym (biology)|synonym]] '''''Ptychoverpa bohemica''''' is often used by European mycologists and it is commonly known as the '''early morel''' or the '''wrinkled thimble-cap.''' The [[mushroom]] has a pale yellow or brown thimble-shaped [[pileus (mycology)|cap]]—{{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long—that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain-like convolutions. A feature distinguishing the species from [[Morchella|true morels]] (genus ''Morchella''), the cap hangs free from the top of the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]], which is lighter in color, brittle, and up to {{convert|12|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1|to|2.5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick. Microscopically, the mushroom is distinguished by its large [[spore]]s, typically 60–80 by 15–18 [[μm]], and the presence of only two spores per [[ascus]].

'''''Verpa bohemica''''' is a species of [[fungus]] in the family [[Morchellaceae]]. The [[synonym (biology)|synonym]] '''''Ptychoverpa bohemica''''' is often used by European mycologists and it is commonly known as the '''early morel''' or the '''wrinkled thimble-cap.'''

The [[mushroom]] has a pale yellow or brown thimble-shaped [[pileus (mycology)|cap]]—{{convert|2 to 4|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2 to 5|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long—that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain-like convolutions. A feature distinguishing the species from [[Morchella|true morels]] (genus ''Morchella''), the cap hangs free from the top of the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]], which is lighter in color, brittle, and up to {{convert|12|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1 to 2.5|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick. Microscopically, the mushroom is distinguished by its large [[spore]]s, typically 60–80 by 15–18 [[μm]], and the presence of only two spores per [[ascus]].

''Verpa bohemica'' is found in northern North America, Europe, and Asia. It fruits in early spring, growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt, before the appearance of true morels. Although widely considered [[edible mushroom|edible]], if incorrectly prepared, consumption of the mushroom may lead to [[mushroom poisoning|poisoning]] in susceptible individuals; symptoms include [[wikt:gastrointestinal|gastrointestinal]] upset and lack of muscular coordination.

''Verpa bohemica'' is found in northern North America, Europe, and Asia. It fruits in early spring, growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt, before the appearance of true morels. Although widely considered [[edible mushroom|edible]], if incorrectly prepared, consumption of the mushroom may lead to [[mushroom poisoning|poisoning]] in susceptible individuals; symptoms include [[wikt:gastrointestinal|gastrointestinal]] upset and lack of muscular coordination.

==Description==

==Description==

The [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] of this fungus (known technically as an [[apothecium]]) is {{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=off|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long, with a conical or bell shape. It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together (''[[anastomose]]'') in a vein-like network. The cap is attached to the stem at the top only—hanging from the top of the [[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]], with the lobed edge free from the stem—and varies in color from yellowish brown to reddish brown; the underside of the cap is pale. The [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] is {{convert|6|to|12|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1|to|2.5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, cream-white in color, and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony [[hypha]]e, it eventually becomes hollow in maturity; overall, the mushroom is rather fragile.<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen 1991"/> The [[spore print|spore deposit]] is yellow, and the [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is white.<ref name="RogersMushrooms"/>

The [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] of this fungus (known technically as an [[apothecium]]) is {{convert|2 to 4|cm|1|abbr=off|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2 to 5|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long, with a conical or bell shape. It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together (''[[anastomose]]'') in a vein-like network. The cap is attached to the stem at the top only—hanging from the top of the [[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]], with the lobed edge free from the stem—and varies in color from yellowish brown to reddish brown; the underside of the cap is pale. The [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] is {{convert|6 to 12|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1 to 2.5|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, cream-white in color, and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony [[hypha]]e, it eventually becomes hollow in maturity; overall, the mushroom is rather fragile.<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen 1991"/> The [[spore print|spore deposit]] is yellow, and the [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is white.<ref name="RogersMushrooms"/>

Relative to other typical mushroom species, the [[spores]] of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' are huge, typically measuring 60–80 by 15–18&nbsp;[[μm]]. They are elliptical, smooth, sometimes curved, and appear [[hyaline]] (translucent) to yellowish.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> The spores, which number two (more rarely three)<ref name="Horgen 1985"/> per [[ascus]] are characteristic for this species.<ref name="McKnight 1987"/> The smooth, elliptical asci measure 275–350&nbsp;μm long by 16–23&nbsp;μm wide.<ref name="Kuo 2005"/> The British-Canadian mycologist [[Arthur Henry Reginald Buller]] determined that the asci are [[heliotropic]]—they bend toward light. As he noted, "I cut transverse sections though their pilei, examined these sections under the microscope, and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit-bodies developed."<ref name="Buller 1909"/> This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces, thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind.<ref name="Buller 1909"/> The [[paraphyses]] are thick and club-shaped, with diameters of 7–8&nbsp;μm at their tips.<ref name="Seaver 1942"/>

Relative to other typical mushroom species, the [[spores]] of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' are huge, typically measuring 60–80 by 15–18&nbsp;[[μm]]. They are elliptical, smooth, sometimes curved, and appear [[hyaline]] (translucent) to yellowish.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> The spores, which number two (more rarely three)<ref name="Horgen 1985"/> per [[ascus]] are characteristic for this species.<ref name="McKnight 1987"/> The smooth, elliptical asci measure 275–350&nbsp;μm long by 16–23&nbsp;μm wide.<ref name="Kuo 2005"/> The British-Canadian mycologist [[Arthur Henry Reginald Buller]] determined that the asci are [[heliotropic]]—they bend toward light. As he noted, "I cut transverse sections though their pilei, examined these sections under the microscope, and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit-bodies developed."<ref name="Buller 1909"/> This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces, thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind.<ref name="Buller 1909"/> The [[paraphyses]] are thick and club-shaped, with diameters of 7–8&nbsp;μm at their tips.<ref name="Seaver 1942"/>

The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America;<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" /> its range extends south to the [[Great Lakes]] in the [[Midwestern United States]], and south to northern [[California]] on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]].<ref name="Kuo 2005" /> In Europe, the fungus is widely distributed, and has been collected from Austria,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> the Czech Republic,<ref name="Svrcek 1981" /> Denmark,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> Finland,<ref name="Granmo 1982" /> Germany,<ref name="O'Donnell 1997" /> Norway,<ref name="Often 1990" /> Poland,<ref name="Skirgiello 1960" /> Russia, <ref name="Skryabina 1975" /> Romania, Slovenia,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> Spain,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> Sweden,<ref name="Ryman 1978" /> and Ukraine.<ref name="Cybertruffle" /> In Asia, it has been recorded from India<ref name="Wani 2010" /> and Turkey.<ref name="Dogan 2007" />

The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America;<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" /> its range extends south to the [[Great Lakes]] in the [[Midwestern United States]], and south to northern [[California]] on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]].<ref name="Kuo 2005" /> In Europe, the fungus is widely distributed, and has been collected from Austria,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> the Czech Republic,<ref name="Svrcek 1981" /> Denmark,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> Finland,<ref name="Granmo 1982" /> Germany,<ref name="O'Donnell 1997" /> Norway,<ref name="Often 1990" /> Poland,<ref name="Skirgiello 1960" /> Russia, <ref name="Skryabina 1975" /> Romania, Slovenia,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> Spain,<ref name="url:GBIF Portal" /> Sweden,<ref name="Ryman 1978" /> and Ukraine.<ref name="Cybertruffle" /> In Asia, it has been recorded from India<ref name="Wani 2010" /> and Turkey.<ref name="Dogan 2007" />

The fruit bodies of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring, often before the appearance of the [[morel]], and throughout the morel season.<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" /> It is often found along riverbanks, near [[Populus sect. Aegiros|cottonwood]]s, [[willow]]s and [[aspen]]s, often buried in plant litter.<ref name="Ammirati 1987" /> The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight.<ref name="Skirgiello 1967" /> Its minimum growth temperature is {{convert|3|C|F}}, with an optimum of {{convert|22|C|F}}, and a maximum of about {{convert|30|C|F}}.<ref name="Gilman 1916" /> A study of [[carbon 13|carbon]] and [[nitrogen 15|nitrogen]] [[isotope analysis|isotope ratios]] indicated that ''Verpa bohemica'' is [[saprobic]], that is, obtaining nutrients from decomposing [[organic matter]].<ref name="Hobbie 2001" /> It has been suggested, however, that the fungus is [[mycorrhizal]] for at least part of its [[biological life cycle|life cycle]].<ref name="Kuo 2007" />

The fruit bodies of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring, often before the appearance of the [[morel]], and throughout the morel season.<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" /> It is often found along riverbanks, near [[Populus sect. Aegiros|cottonwood]]s, [[willow]]s and [[aspen]]s, often buried in plant litter.<ref name="Ammirati 1987" /> The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight.<ref name="Skirgiello 1967" /> Its minimum growth temperature is {{convert|3|C|F}}, with an optimum of {{convert|22|C|F}}, and a maximum of about {{convert|30|C|F}}.<ref name="Gilman 1916" /> A study of [[carbon 13|carbon]] and [[nitrogen 15|nitrogen]] [[isotope analysis|isotope ratios]] indicated that ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' is [[saprobic]], that is, obtaining nutrients from decomposing [[organic matter]].<ref name="Hobbie 2001" /> It has been suggested, however, that the fungus is [[mycorrhiza]]l for at least part of its [[biological life cycle|life cycle]].<ref name="Kuo 2007" />

A 10-year study of the distribution, time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in [[Iowa]] showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring, appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on [[deciduous]] trees. Narrow-head morels (''[[Morchella angusticeps]]'') fruit next, followed by the yellow or white morels (''[[Morchella esculenta]]''), then lastly ''[[Morchella crassipes]]''.<ref name="Tiffany 1998"/> The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding [[dipteran]]s (flies), including ''[[Porricondyla media]]'', ''[[Pegomya geniculata]]'', and ''[[Trichocera annulata]]''.<ref name="Krivosheina 2008"/>

A 10-year study of the distribution, time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in [[Iowa]] showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring, appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on [[deciduous]] trees. Narrow-head morels (''[[Morchella angusticeps]]'') fruit next, followed by the yellow or white morels (''[[Morchella esculenta|M.&nbsp;esculenta]]''), then lastly ''[[Morchella crassipes|M.&nbsp;crassipes]]''.<ref name="Tiffany 1998"/> The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding [[dipteran]]s (flies), including ''[[Porricondyla media]]'', ''[[Pegomya geniculata]]'', and ''[[Trichocera annulata]]''.<ref name="Krivosheina 2008"/>

==Edibility==

==Edibility==

<ref name="Ammirati 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Ammirati JF, McKenny M, Stuntz DE |title=The New Savory Wild Mushroom |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle, Washington |year=1987 |page=214 |isbn=0-295-96480-4}}</ref>

<ref name="Ammirati 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Ammirati JF, McKenny M, Stuntz DE |title=The New Savory Wild Mushroom |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle, Washington |year=1987 |page=214 |isbn=0-295-96480-4}}</ref>

<ref name="Arora 1986">{{cite book |author=Arora D. |title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley, California |year=1986 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/794 794] |isbn=0-89815-169-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/794 }}</ref>

<ref name="Arora 1986">{{cite book |author=Arora D. |author-link=David Arora |title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |url=https://archive.org/details/arora-david-mushrooms-demystified-a-comprehensive-guide-to-the-fleshy-fungi-ten-speed-press-1986/page/794/mode/2up |publisher=[[Ten Speed Press]] |isbn=978-0-89815-170-1 |location=Berkeley, California |year=1986 |orig-date=1979 |edition=2nd |pages=794-95}}</ref>

<ref name="Bessette 1992">{{cite book |vauthors=Bessette A, Fischer DH |title=Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: a Field-to-Kitchen Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/ediblewildmushro00fisc |url-access=limited |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |year=1992 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ediblewildmushro00fisc/page/n146 137] |isbn=0-292-72080-7}}</ref>

<ref name="Bessette 1992">{{cite book |vauthors=Bessette A, Fischer DH |title=Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: a Field-to-Kitchen Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/ediblewildmushro00fisc |url-access=limited |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |year=1992 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ediblewildmushro00fisc/page/n146 137] |isbn=0-292-72080-7}}</ref>

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==External links==

==External links==