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Flooding and tropical cyclones: rewrote the section to be more cohesive and encyclopedic, grouped like things together, added archive link, found additional source
[td]Florida and the [[Southeastern United States|U.S. Southeast]] region face many health-related threats due to tropical storms, sea level rise, extreme heat, and drought.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#climate-change-and-human-health |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2016092...gov/downloads#climate-change-and-human-health |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2016 |title=Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment |last1=Balbus |first1=J. |last2=Crimmins |first2=A. |date=2016 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/j0vx0dfw |last3=Gamble |first3=J.L. |last4=Easterling |first4=D.R. |last5=Kunkel |first5=K.E. |last6=Saha |first6=S. |last7=Sarofim |first7=M.C.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>[/td] [td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]=== Flooding and tropical cyclones ===[/td]
[td]=== Flooding and hurricanes ===[/td] [td]Florida is a low-lying state and is estimated to be the state in the U.S. with the largest population and proportion of population living in the low-elevation coastal zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tagtachian |first1=Daniela |last2=Balk |first2=Deborah |date=2023-08-11 |title=Uneven vulnerability: characterizing population composition and change in the low elevation coastal zone in the United States with a climate justice lens, 1990β2020 |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2023.1111856 |issn=2296-665X |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Sea level rise]] threatens to increase flooding. Of an estimated 590,000 people in South Florida vulnerable to sea level rise, it is estimated that 125,000 are [[Social vulnerability|socially vulnerable]] and 55,000 are medically vulnerable.<ref name=":32">{{Cite report |url=https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123190907/https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 23, 2018 |title=Chapter 19 : Southeast. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II |last1=Carter |first1=Lynne M. |last2=Terando |first2=Adam |date=2018 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/nca4.2018.ch19 |last3=Dow |first3=Kirstin |last4=Hiers |first4=Kevin |last5=Kunkel |first5=Kenneth E. |last6=Lascurain |first6=Aranzazu |last7=Marcy |first7=Douglas C. |last8=Osland |first8=Michael J. |last9=Schramm |first9=Paul J.|doi-access=free }}</ref>[/td]
[td]Due to its low elevation and the fact that it is the U.S. state with the largest number and percentage of its population living in coastal areas, Florida is at significant risk from flooding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tagtachian |first1=Daniela |last2=Balk |first2=Deborah |date=2023-08-11 |title=Uneven vulnerability: characterizing population composition and change in the low elevation coastal zone in the United States with a climate justice lens, 1990β2020 |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2023.1111856 |issn=2296-665X |doi-access=free }}</ref> South Florida is especially vulnerable to sea level rise, with 590,000 people facing high or extreme risk from flooding. Of those, it is estimated that 55,000 are medically vulnerable and 125,000 are [[Social vulnerability|socially vulnerable]].<ref name=":32">{{Cite report |url=https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123190907/https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 23, 2018 |title=Chapter 19 : Southeast. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II |last1=Carter |first1=Lynne M. |last2=Terando |first2=Adam |date=2018 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/nca4.2018.ch19 |last3=Dow |first3=Kirstin |last4=Hiers |first4=Kevin |last5=Kunkel |first5=Kenneth E. |last6=Lascurain |first6=Aranzazu |last7=Marcy |first7=Douglas C. |last8=Osland |first8=Michael J. |last9=Schramm |first9=Paul J.|doi-access=free }}</ref> In a 2025 report assessing the people and places in the U.S. most at risk for severe flooding by 2050, [[St. Petersburg, Florida|Saint Petersburg]] and Miami Beach were listed as the cities having the third and fourth largest number of people at risk, with 46,000 and 45,000 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2, 2025 |title=Coastal Flood Risks Across the US |url=https://assets.ctfassets.net/cxgxgs...1e86/FINAL__Exposure_Analysis_Report.docx.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2025072...1e86/FINAL__Exposure_Analysis_Report.docx.pdf |archive-date=July 22, 2025 |access-date=September 4, 2025 |website=Climate Central}}</ref>[/td] [td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]Hurricanes can threaten health in a variety of direct and indirect ways.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waddell |first=Samantha L. |last2=Jayaweera |first2=Dushyantha T. |last3=Mirsaeidi |first3=Mehdi |last4=Beier |first4=John C. |last5=Kumar |first5=Naresh |date=2021-03-09 |title=Perspectives on the Health Effects of Hurricanes: A Review and Challenges |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7967478/ |url-status=live |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=2756 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18052756 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7967478 |pmid=33803162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828111241/https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7967478/ |archive-date=August 28, 2025}}</ref> In the United States, [[drowning]] is the leading cause of flooding-related death, particularly due to powerful [[Storm surge|storm surges]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite report |url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#extreme-events |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2016092...016.globalchange.gov/downloads#extreme-events |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2016 |title=Ch. 4: Impacts of Extreme Events on Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment |last1=Bell |first1=J.E. |last2=Herring |first2=S.C. |date=2016 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/j0bz63zv |last3=Jantarasami |first3=L. |last4=Adrianopoli |first4=C. |last5=Benedict |first5=K. |last6=Conlon |first6=K. |last7=Escobar |first7=V. |last8=Hess |first8=J. |last9=Luvall |first9=J.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although the U.S. is not considered to be at high risk for post flood related gastrointestinal illness, there is an increased risk among populations facing displacement due to poor sanitation and crowding in shelters. Food spoilage due to power outages have also been shown to cause outbreaks of these types of illnesses.<ref name=":22" /> In Florida, power outages after [[Hurricane Irma]] were associated with higher mortality in nursing home residents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skarha |first1=Julianne |last2=Gordon |first2=Lily |last3=Sakib |first3=Nazmus |last4=June |first4=Joseph |last5=Jester |first5=Dylan J. |last6=Peterson |first6=Lindsay J. |last7=Andel |first7=Ross |last8=Dosa |first8=David M. |date=2021-11-24 |title=Association of Power Outage With Mortality and Hospitalizations Among Florida Nursing Home Residents After Hurricane Irma |journal=JAMA Health Forum |language=en |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e213900 |doi=10.1001/jamahealthforum.2021.3900 |issn=2689-0186 |pmc=8796882 |pmid=35977265}}</ref> During the evacuation process, people can lose or forget medication and devices such as hearing aids or dentures and may have difficulty filling prescriptions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ochi |first1=Sae |last2=Hodgson |first2=Susan |last3=Landeg |first3=Owen |last4=Mayner |first4=Lidia |last5=Murray |first5=Virginia |date=2014 |title=Disaster-Driven Evacuation and Medication Loss: a Systematic Literature Review |journal=PLOS Currents |volume=6 |language=en |doi=10.1371/currents.dis.fa417630b566a0c7dfdbf945910edd96 |pmid=25642363 |issn=2157-3999 |doi-access=free |pmc=4169391 }}</ref> A 2004 study of [[Hurricane Charley]] found a link between exposure to high wind speeds and an increased risk of [[preterm birth]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grabich |first1=Shannon C. |last2=Robinson |first2=Whitney R. |last3=Engel |first3=Stephanie M. |last4=Konrad |first4=Charles E. |last5=Richardson |first5=David B. |last6=Horney |first6=Jennifer A. |date=2016 |title=Hurricane Charley Exposure and Hazard of Preterm Delivery, Florida 2004 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10995-016-2069-y |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |language=en |volume=20 |issue=12 |pages=2474β2482 |doi=10.1007/s10995-016-2069-y |issn=1092-7875 |pmid=27485492 |s2cid=23967536 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> A retrospective analysis from 2020 shows further evidence of this association.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Shengzhi |last2=Weinberger |first2=Kate R. |last3=Yan |first3=Meilin |last4=Brooke Anderson |first4=G. |last5=Wellenius |first5=Gregory A. |date=2020-07-01 |title=Tropical cyclones and risk of preterm birth: A retrospective analysis of 20 million births across 378 US counties |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412020317803 |journal=Environment International |volume=140 |pages=105825 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2020.105825 |issn=0160-4120}}</ref>[/td] [td][[Tropical cyclone|Tropical cyclones]] like hurricanes can threaten health in a variety of ways: flooding, strong winds, hazards in the recovery period after a storm, evacuation and displacement, and mental health impacts.[/td] [td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]Longer-term impacts include those on mental and respiratory health, as well as exposure to harmful substances. Flooding puts people at higher risk of mental health challenges such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), anxiety, and depression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ana |last2=Black |first2=John |last3=Jones |first3=Mairwen |last4=Wilson |first4=Leigh |last5=Salvador-Carulla |first5=Luis |last6=Astell-Burt |first6=Thomas |last7=Black |first7=Deborah |date=2015-04-10 |editor-last=Ebi |editor-first=Kristie L |title=Flooding and Mental Health: A Systematic Mapping Review |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0119929 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019929F |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119929 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4393088 |pmid=25860572 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Recovery after a major storm can involve heavy construction and exposure to hazardous materials in floodwaters such as sewage, chemicals, and sharp or broken objects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Johanning |first1=Eckardt |last2=Auger |first2=Pierre |last3=Morey |first3=Philip R. |last4=Yang |first4=Chin S. |last5=Olmsted |first5=Ed |date=2014 |title=Review of health hazards and prevention measures for response and recovery workers and volunteers after natural disasters, flooding, and water damage: mold and dampness |journal=Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=93β99 |doi=10.1007/s12199-013-0368-0 |issn=1342-078X |pmc=3944034 |pmid=24254802 |bibcode=2014EHPM...19...93J}}</ref> Florida's hot and humid climate creates favorable conditions for mold growth, these conditions are exacerbated after flooding and result in an increased exposure to mold spores which can cause worsened asthma, throat irritation, and wheezing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Choi-Schagrin |first=Winston |date=October 4, 2022 |title=After the Storm, the Mold: Warming Is Worsening Another Costly Disaster |url=
|url-status=live |archive-url=
|archive-date=October 4, 2022 |access-date=December 18, 2023 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>[/td]
[td]In the United States, [[drowning]] is the leading cause of flooding-related death, particularly due to powerful [[Storm surge|storm surges]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite report |url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#extreme-events |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2016092...016.globalchange.gov/downloads#extreme-events |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2016 |title=Ch. 4: Impacts of Extreme Events on Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment |last1=Bell |first1=J.E. |last2=Herring |first2=S.C. |date=2016 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/j0bz63zv |last3=Jantarasami |first3=L. |last4=Adrianopoli |first4=C. |last5=Benedict |first5=K. |last6=Conlon |first6=K. |last7=Escobar |first7=V. |last8=Hess |first8=J. |last9=Luvall |first9=J.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Storms can directly threaten lives and also cause [[Power outage|power outages]] due to winds and/or flooding. In Florida, power outages after [[Hurricane Irma]] were associated with higher mortality in nursing home residents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skarha |first1=Julianne |last2=Gordon |first2=Lily |last3=Sakib |first3=Nazmus |last4=June |first4=Joseph |last5=Jester |first5=Dylan J. |last6=Peterson |first6=Lindsay J. |last7=Andel |first7=Ross |last8=Dosa |first8=David M. |date=2021-11-24 |title=Association of Power Outage With Mortality and Hospitalizations Among Florida Nursing Home Residents After Hurricane Irma |journal=JAMA Health Forum |language=en |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e213900 |doi=10.1001/jamahealthforum.2021.3900 |issn=2689-0186 |pmc=8796882 |pmid=35977265}}</ref>[/td]
[td][/td]
[td][[Hurricane evacuation|Evacuation]] and displacement due to a storm can impact health. During the evacuation process, people can lose or forget medication and devices such as hearing aids or dentures and may have difficulty filling prescriptions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ochi |first1=Sae |last2=Hodgson |first2=Susan |last3=Landeg |first3=Owen |last4=Mayner |first4=Lidia |last5=Murray |first5=Virginia |date=2014 |title=Disaster-Driven Evacuation and Medication Loss: a Systematic Literature Review |journal=PLOS Currents |volume=6 |language=en |doi=10.1371/currents.dis.fa417630b566a0c7dfdbf945910edd96 |pmid=25642363 |issn=2157-3999 |doi-access=free |pmc=4169391 }}</ref>[/td]
[td][/td]
[td]Recovery after a major storm can involve heavy construction and exposure to hazardous materials in floodwaters such as sewage, chemicals, and sharp or broken objects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Johanning |first1=Eckardt |last2=Auger |first2=Pierre |last3=Morey |first3=Philip R. |last4=Yang |first4=Chin S. |last5=Olmsted |first5=Ed |date=2014 |title=Review of health hazards and prevention measures for response and recovery workers and volunteers after natural disasters, flooding, and water damage: mold and dampness |journal=Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=93β99 |doi=10.1007/s12199-013-0368-0 |issn=1342-078X |pmc=3944034 |pmid=24254802|bibcode=2014EHPM...19...93J }}</ref> Dampness after flooding can facilitate [[mold]] growth, which is common after flooding in Florida; Florida's hot and humid climate creates favorable conditions for mold growth even in the absence of flooding.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Choi-Schagrin |first=Winston |date=October 4, 2022 |title=After the Storm, the Mold: Warming Is Worsening Another Costly Disaster |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/04/climate/hurricane-ian-mold-home-remediation.html |access-date=December 18, 2023}}</ref>[/td]
[td][/td]
[td]Compared to less developed areas of the world, threats of infectious, respiratory, and diarrheal diseases are low in high income/ developed countries like the U.S. but are more prevalent following flooding events.<ref name=":22" />[/td]
[td][/td]
[td]Longer-term health impacts include impacts on mental health and pregnancy outcomes. Flooding puts people at higher risk of mental health challenges such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], anxiety, and depression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ana |last2=Black |first2=John |last3=Jones |first3=Mairwen |last4=Wilson |first4=Leigh |last5=Salvador-Carulla |first5=Luis |last6=Astell-Burt |first6=Thomas |last7=Black |first7=Deborah |date=2015-04-10 |editor-last=Ebi |editor-first=Kristie L |title=Flooding and Mental Health: A Systematic Mapping Review |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0119929 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119929 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4393088 |pmid=25860572 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019929F |doi-access=free }}</ref> A study of [[Hurricane Charley]] in Florida found that exposure to higher wind speeds increased risk of [[preterm birth]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grabich |first1=Shannon C. |last2=Robinson |first2=Whitney R. |last3=Engel |first3=Stephanie M. |last4=Konrad |first4=Charles E. |last5=Richardson |first5=David B. |last6=Horney |first6=Jennifer A. |date=2016 |title=Hurricane Charley Exposure and Hazard of Preterm Delivery, Florida 2004 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10995-016-2069-y |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |language=en |volume=20 |issue=12 |pages=2474β2482 |doi=10.1007/s10995-016-2069-y |pmid=27485492 |s2cid=23967536 |issn=1092-7875|url-access=subscription }}</ref>[/td]
[td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]=== Extreme heat ===[/td]
[td]=== Extreme heat ===[/td]
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[td]Florida and the [[Southeastern United States|U.S. Southeast]] region face many health-related threats due to tropical storms, sea level rise, extreme heat, and drought.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#climate-change-and-human-health |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2016092...gov/downloads#climate-change-and-human-health |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2016 |title=Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment |last1=Balbus |first1=J. |last2=Crimmins |first2=A. |date=2016 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/j0vx0dfw |last3=Gamble |first3=J.L. |last4=Easterling |first4=D.R. |last5=Kunkel |first5=K.E. |last6=Saha |first6=S. |last7=Sarofim |first7=M.C.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>[/td]Revision as of 16:25, 4 September 2025
[/td][td]Florida and the [[Southeastern United States|U.S. Southeast]] region face many health-related threats due to tropical storms, sea level rise, extreme heat, and drought.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#climate-change-and-human-health |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2016092...gov/downloads#climate-change-and-human-health |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2016 |title=Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment |last1=Balbus |first1=J. |last2=Crimmins |first2=A. |date=2016 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/j0vx0dfw |last3=Gamble |first3=J.L. |last4=Easterling |first4=D.R. |last5=Kunkel |first5=K.E. |last6=Saha |first6=S. |last7=Sarofim |first7=M.C.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>[/td] [td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]=== Flooding and tropical cyclones ===[/td]
[td]=== Flooding and hurricanes ===[/td] [td]Florida is a low-lying state and is estimated to be the state in the U.S. with the largest population and proportion of population living in the low-elevation coastal zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tagtachian |first1=Daniela |last2=Balk |first2=Deborah |date=2023-08-11 |title=Uneven vulnerability: characterizing population composition and change in the low elevation coastal zone in the United States with a climate justice lens, 1990β2020 |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2023.1111856 |issn=2296-665X |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Sea level rise]] threatens to increase flooding. Of an estimated 590,000 people in South Florida vulnerable to sea level rise, it is estimated that 125,000 are [[Social vulnerability|socially vulnerable]] and 55,000 are medically vulnerable.<ref name=":32">{{Cite report |url=https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123190907/https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 23, 2018 |title=Chapter 19 : Southeast. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II |last1=Carter |first1=Lynne M. |last2=Terando |first2=Adam |date=2018 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/nca4.2018.ch19 |last3=Dow |first3=Kirstin |last4=Hiers |first4=Kevin |last5=Kunkel |first5=Kenneth E. |last6=Lascurain |first6=Aranzazu |last7=Marcy |first7=Douglas C. |last8=Osland |first8=Michael J. |last9=Schramm |first9=Paul J.|doi-access=free }}</ref>[/td]
[td]Due to its low elevation and the fact that it is the U.S. state with the largest number and percentage of its population living in coastal areas, Florida is at significant risk from flooding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tagtachian |first1=Daniela |last2=Balk |first2=Deborah |date=2023-08-11 |title=Uneven vulnerability: characterizing population composition and change in the low elevation coastal zone in the United States with a climate justice lens, 1990β2020 |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2023.1111856 |issn=2296-665X |doi-access=free }}</ref> South Florida is especially vulnerable to sea level rise, with 590,000 people facing high or extreme risk from flooding. Of those, it is estimated that 55,000 are medically vulnerable and 125,000 are [[Social vulnerability|socially vulnerable]].<ref name=":32">{{Cite report |url=https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123190907/https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/19/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 23, 2018 |title=Chapter 19 : Southeast. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II |last1=Carter |first1=Lynne M. |last2=Terando |first2=Adam |date=2018 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/nca4.2018.ch19 |last3=Dow |first3=Kirstin |last4=Hiers |first4=Kevin |last5=Kunkel |first5=Kenneth E. |last6=Lascurain |first6=Aranzazu |last7=Marcy |first7=Douglas C. |last8=Osland |first8=Michael J. |last9=Schramm |first9=Paul J.|doi-access=free }}</ref> In a 2025 report assessing the people and places in the U.S. most at risk for severe flooding by 2050, [[St. Petersburg, Florida|Saint Petersburg]] and Miami Beach were listed as the cities having the third and fourth largest number of people at risk, with 46,000 and 45,000 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2, 2025 |title=Coastal Flood Risks Across the US |url=https://assets.ctfassets.net/cxgxgs...1e86/FINAL__Exposure_Analysis_Report.docx.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2025072...1e86/FINAL__Exposure_Analysis_Report.docx.pdf |archive-date=July 22, 2025 |access-date=September 4, 2025 |website=Climate Central}}</ref>[/td] [td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]Hurricanes can threaten health in a variety of direct and indirect ways.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waddell |first=Samantha L. |last2=Jayaweera |first2=Dushyantha T. |last3=Mirsaeidi |first3=Mehdi |last4=Beier |first4=John C. |last5=Kumar |first5=Naresh |date=2021-03-09 |title=Perspectives on the Health Effects of Hurricanes: A Review and Challenges |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7967478/ |url-status=live |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=2756 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18052756 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7967478 |pmid=33803162 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828111241/https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7967478/ |archive-date=August 28, 2025}}</ref> In the United States, [[drowning]] is the leading cause of flooding-related death, particularly due to powerful [[Storm surge|storm surges]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite report |url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#extreme-events |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2016092...016.globalchange.gov/downloads#extreme-events |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2016 |title=Ch. 4: Impacts of Extreme Events on Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment |last1=Bell |first1=J.E. |last2=Herring |first2=S.C. |date=2016 |publisher=U.S. Global Change Research Program |doi=10.7930/j0bz63zv |last3=Jantarasami |first3=L. |last4=Adrianopoli |first4=C. |last5=Benedict |first5=K. |last6=Conlon |first6=K. |last7=Escobar |first7=V. |last8=Hess |first8=J. |last9=Luvall |first9=J.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although the U.S. is not considered to be at high risk for post flood related gastrointestinal illness, there is an increased risk among populations facing displacement due to poor sanitation and crowding in shelters. Food spoilage due to power outages have also been shown to cause outbreaks of these types of illnesses.<ref name=":22" /> In Florida, power outages after [[Hurricane Irma]] were associated with higher mortality in nursing home residents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skarha |first1=Julianne |last2=Gordon |first2=Lily |last3=Sakib |first3=Nazmus |last4=June |first4=Joseph |last5=Jester |first5=Dylan J. |last6=Peterson |first6=Lindsay J. |last7=Andel |first7=Ross |last8=Dosa |first8=David M. |date=2021-11-24 |title=Association of Power Outage With Mortality and Hospitalizations Among Florida Nursing Home Residents After Hurricane Irma |journal=JAMA Health Forum |language=en |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e213900 |doi=10.1001/jamahealthforum.2021.3900 |issn=2689-0186 |pmc=8796882 |pmid=35977265}}</ref> During the evacuation process, people can lose or forget medication and devices such as hearing aids or dentures and may have difficulty filling prescriptions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ochi |first1=Sae |last2=Hodgson |first2=Susan |last3=Landeg |first3=Owen |last4=Mayner |first4=Lidia |last5=Murray |first5=Virginia |date=2014 |title=Disaster-Driven Evacuation and Medication Loss: a Systematic Literature Review |journal=PLOS Currents |volume=6 |language=en |doi=10.1371/currents.dis.fa417630b566a0c7dfdbf945910edd96 |pmid=25642363 |issn=2157-3999 |doi-access=free |pmc=4169391 }}</ref> A 2004 study of [[Hurricane Charley]] found a link between exposure to high wind speeds and an increased risk of [[preterm birth]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grabich |first1=Shannon C. |last2=Robinson |first2=Whitney R. |last3=Engel |first3=Stephanie M. |last4=Konrad |first4=Charles E. |last5=Richardson |first5=David B. |last6=Horney |first6=Jennifer A. |date=2016 |title=Hurricane Charley Exposure and Hazard of Preterm Delivery, Florida 2004 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10995-016-2069-y |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |language=en |volume=20 |issue=12 |pages=2474β2482 |doi=10.1007/s10995-016-2069-y |issn=1092-7875 |pmid=27485492 |s2cid=23967536 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> A retrospective analysis from 2020 shows further evidence of this association.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Shengzhi |last2=Weinberger |first2=Kate R. |last3=Yan |first3=Meilin |last4=Brooke Anderson |first4=G. |last5=Wellenius |first5=Gregory A. |date=2020-07-01 |title=Tropical cyclones and risk of preterm birth: A retrospective analysis of 20 million births across 378 US counties |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412020317803 |journal=Environment International |volume=140 |pages=105825 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2020.105825 |issn=0160-4120}}</ref>[/td] [td][[Tropical cyclone|Tropical cyclones]] like hurricanes can threaten health in a variety of ways: flooding, strong winds, hazards in the recovery period after a storm, evacuation and displacement, and mental health impacts.[/td] [td][/td]
[td][/td] [td]Longer-term impacts include those on mental and respiratory health, as well as exposure to harmful substances. Flooding puts people at higher risk of mental health challenges such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), anxiety, and depression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ana |last2=Black |first2=John |last3=Jones |first3=Mairwen |last4=Wilson |first4=Leigh |last5=Salvador-Carulla |first5=Luis |last6=Astell-Burt |first6=Thomas |last7=Black |first7=Deborah |date=2015-04-10 |editor-last=Ebi |editor-first=Kristie L |title=Flooding and Mental Health: A Systematic Mapping Review |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0119929 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019929F |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119929 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4393088 |pmid=25860572 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Recovery after a major storm can involve heavy construction and exposure to hazardous materials in floodwaters such as sewage, chemicals, and sharp or broken objects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Johanning |first1=Eckardt |last2=Auger |first2=Pierre |last3=Morey |first3=Philip R. |last4=Yang |first4=Chin S. |last5=Olmsted |first5=Ed |date=2014 |title=Review of health hazards and prevention measures for response and recovery workers and volunteers after natural disasters, flooding, and water damage: mold and dampness |journal=Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=93β99 |doi=10.1007/s12199-013-0368-0 |issn=1342-078X |pmc=3944034 |pmid=24254802 |bibcode=2014EHPM...19...93J}}</ref> Florida's hot and humid climate creates favorable conditions for mold growth, these conditions are exacerbated after flooding and result in an increased exposure to mold spores which can cause worsened asthma, throat irritation, and wheezing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Choi-Schagrin |first=Winston |date=October 4, 2022 |title=After the Storm, the Mold: Warming Is Worsening Another Costly Disaster |url=
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[td][/td] [td]=== Extreme heat ===[/td]
[td]=== Extreme heat ===[/td]
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