Shaka era

[[File:Nepal30005a.JPG|thumb|250px|Mohar of Gorkhali king [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] dated Shaka era 1685 (AD 1763)]]The origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called ''Old Shaka Era'', whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist and Jaina [[inscriptions]] and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among scholars. The other is called ''Saka Era of 78 CE'', or simply ''Saka Era'', a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is the ''Vikrama Era'', which is used by the [[Vikrami calendar]] linked to Vikramaditya.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=181–183}}

[[File:Nepal30005a.JPG|thumb|250px|Mohar of Gorkhali king [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] dated Shaka era 1685 (AD 1763)]]The origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called ''Old Shaka Era'', whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist and Jaina [[inscriptions]] and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among scholars. The other is called ''Saka Era of 78 CE'', or simply ''Saka Era'', a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is the ''Vikrama Era'', which is used by the [[Vikrami calendar]] linked to Vikramaditya.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=181–183}}

The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Chashtana]] in 78 CE.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA69 |title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE |editor=Patrick Olivelle |chapter=Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta interlude in the Gangetic Plains |author=Shailendra Bhandare |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780199775071 |page=69 }}</ref> His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in [[Kutch]] region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwkOdPtZmVcC&pg=PA193 |title=Script and Image: Papers on Art and Epigraphy |editor1=Adalbert J. Gail |editor2=Gerd J. R. Mevissen |editor3=Richard Salomon |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=2006 |page=193 |isbn=9788120829442 }}</ref> A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of [[Kanishka I]] in 78 CE.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicated that [[Kanishka]] ascended the throne in 127 CE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKJyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |title=Greek Gods in the East |author=Ladislav Stančo |publisher= [[Karolinum Press]] |year=2012 |page=18 |isbn=9788024620459 }}</ref> Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a [[Kushana]] ruler.<ref name="KCS_1992">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA135 |title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India |author=Krishna Chandra Sagar |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=1992 |isbn=9788172110284 |pages=135–136 }}</ref> Other historical candidates have included rulers such as [[Vima Kadphises]], [[Vonones II|Vonones]], and [[Nahapana]].<ref name="KCS_1992"/>

The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Chashtana]] in 78 CE.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA69 |title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE |editor=Patrick Olivelle |chapter=Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta interlude in the Gangetic Plains |author=Shailendra Bhandare |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780199775071 |page=69 }}</ref><ref name=Report>{{citation |author=Government of India |title=Report of the Calendar Reform Committee |chapter=The Saka Era |chapter-url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/39692 |year=1955 |pages=255–256}}</ref> His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in [[Kutch]] region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwkOdPtZmVcC&pg=PA193 |title=Script and Image: Papers on Art and Epigraphy |editor1=Adalbert J. Gail |editor2=Gerd J. R. Mevissen |editor3=Richard Salomon |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=2006 |page=193 |isbn=9788120829442 }}</ref> A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of [[Kanishka I]] in 78 CE.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicated that [[Kanishka]] ascended the throne in 127 CE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKJyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |title=Greek Gods in the East |author=Ladislav Stančo |publisher= [[Karolinum Press]] |year=2012 |page=18 |isbn=9788024620459 }}</ref> Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a [[Kushana]] ruler.<ref name="KCS_1992">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA135 |title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India |author=Krishna Chandra Sagar |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=1992 |isbn=9788172110284 |pages=135–136 }}</ref> Other historical candidates have included rulers such as [[Vima Kadphises]], [[Vonones II|Vonones]], and [[Nahapana]].<ref name="KCS_1992"/>

According to historian [[Dineshchandra Sircar]], the historically inaccurate notion of "Shalivahana era" appears to be based on the victory of the [[Satavahana]] ruler [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] over some Shaka ([[Western Kshatrapa]]) kings. Sircar also suggested that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with [[Vikrama era]] might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend.<ref name="DCS_1965">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC&pg=PA262 |title=Indian Epigraphy |author=D. C. Sircar |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1965 |pages=262–266 |isbn=9788120811669 }}</ref> Another similar account claims that the emperor [[Shalivahana]],<ref>{{cite book|author=kamlesh kapur |title= History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&q=shalivahan+ujjain&pg=PA321 |year=2010|publisher= Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd |page=321|isbn=978-81-207-5212-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=RajendraSingh Kushwaha|title=Glimpses of Bhartiya History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZuAAAAMAAJ&q=shalivahan |year=2003|publisher= Ocean books|page=184|isbn=9788188322404 }}</ref> grandson of legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas in 78 CE, and the Shaka era marks the day of this conquest. This legend has been mentioned in the writings of [[Brahmagupta]] (7th century CE), [[Al-Biruni]] (973–1048 CE), and others. However, it is an obvious fabrication.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} Over time, the word "Shaka" became generic, and came to be mean "an era"; the era thus came to be known as "Shalivahana Shaka".<ref>{{cite book |author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&pg=PA80 |year=1982 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |pages=80–81 }}</ref>

According to historian [[Dineshchandra Sircar]], the historically inaccurate notion of "Shalivahana era" appears to be based on the victory of the [[Satavahana]] ruler [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] over some Shaka ([[Western Kshatrapa]]) kings. Sircar also suggested that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with [[Vikrama era]] might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend.<ref name="DCS_1965">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC&pg=PA262 |title=Indian Epigraphy |author=D. C. Sircar |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1965 |pages=262–266 |isbn=9788120811669 }}</ref> Another similar account claims that the emperor [[Shalivahana]],<ref>{{cite book|author=kamlesh kapur |title= History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&q=shalivahan+ujjain&pg=PA321 |year=2010|publisher= Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd |page=321|isbn=978-81-207-5212-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=RajendraSingh Kushwaha|title=Glimpses of Bhartiya History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZuAAAAMAAJ&q=shalivahan |year=2003|publisher= Ocean books|page=184|isbn=9788188322404 }}</ref> grandson of legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas in 78 CE, and the Shaka era marks the day of this conquest. This legend has been mentioned in the writings of [[Brahmagupta]] (7th century CE), [[Al-Biruni]] (973–1048 CE), and others. However, it is an obvious fabrication.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} Over time, the word "Shaka" became generic, and came to be mean "an era"; the era thus came to be known as "Shalivahana Shaka".<ref>{{cite book |author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&pg=PA80 |year=1982 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |pages=80–81 }}</ref>