Empire

Stephen Howe writes that with the exception of the Roman, Chinese and "perhaps ancient Egyptian states", early empires seldom survived the death of their founder and were usually limited in scope to conquest and collection of tribute, having little impact on the everyday lives of their subjects.{{sfn|Howe|2002|pp=37, 39}}

Stephen Howe writes that with the exception of the Roman, Chinese and "perhaps ancient Egyptian states", early empires seldom survived the death of their founder and were usually limited in scope to conquest and collection of tribute, having little impact on the everyday lives of their subjects.{{sfn|Howe|2002|pp=37, 39}}

With the exception of Rome, the periods of dissolution following imperial falls were equally short. Successor states seldom outlived their founders and disappeared in the next and often larger empire. Only in the wreckage of the Roman Empire, distinguished Robert G. Wesson, a system of full-fledged nation-states evolved and it took a millennium. "It seems almost impossible for a community of free states to reemerge where a universal empire has once stretched across the land and fixed its ways and symbols of authority."<ref>Wesson, Robert G. (1967). ''The Imperial Order''. (Berkeley: University of California Press), p 374.</ref> Some empires, like the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]], [[Median kingdom|Median]] and [[Lydia]]n were outright conquered by a larger empire. The historical pattern was not a simple rise-and-fall cycle; rather it was rise, fall, and greater rise, taking on an increasingly global scale.<ref>[[John M. MacKenzie|MacKenzie, John M.]] (2016). "Empires in world history: Characteristics, concepts, and consequences." ''The Encyclopedia of Empire''. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 9781118440643), vol I, p 1.</ref> [[Raoul Naroll]] called it "expanding pulsation"<ref>Naroll, Raoul, (1967). "Imperial Cycles and World Order," ''Peace Research Society'', 7: pp 83-101.</ref> and [[Ian Morris (historian)|Ian Morris]] "exponential growth"<ref>Morris, Ian (2012). "The evolution of war," ''Cliodynamics'', vol 3 (1): p 23-24.</ref> [[Peter Turchin]], [[Walter Scheidel]] and [[Rein Taagepera]] demonstrated this millennia-long trend in mathematically calculated graphs. Turchin showed the largest empire in total area for 2800 BC – AD 1800.<ref> Turchin, Peter (2009), "A theory for formation of large empires," ''Journal of Global History'', vol 4: p 201, fig 2, p 205, https://peterturchin.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Turchin_JGH_2009.pdf</ref> Scheidel demonstrated population of the largest empire and three largest empires as a share of world population from 700 BC to AD 2000.<ref>Scheidel, Walter (2021). "The scale of empire: Territory, population, distribution." ''The Oxford World History of Empire''. (Oxford University Press). Vol. 1, p. 97.</ref> Taagepera showed the largest empire in total area and share of world population for 3000 BC - AD 2000<ref>Taagepera, Rein & Nemcok, Miroslav (2024). ''More People, Fewer States: The Past and Future of World Population and Empire Sizes''. (Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42782-1), fig 14.1, 14.2, 14.3, p 228, 230, 233.</ref> and for the same period five largest empires as share of world land and world population.<ref>Taagepera, Rein & Nemcok, Miroslav (2024). ''More People, Fewer States: The Past and Future of World Population and Empire Sizes''. (Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42782-1), fig 4.1, p 51.</ref> The general vector of these graphs, according to Max Ostrovsky, represents a fragment in hyperbola ''[[wikt:arctangent|Y = Arctg X]]'' when the hyperbola takes off.<ref>Ostrovsky, Max (2006). ''Y = Arctg X: The Hyperbola of the World Order''. (Lanham: University Press of America), p 363-364, https://archive.org/details/yarctgxhyperbola0000ostr/page/362/mode/2up?q=arctg&view=theater</ref>

With the exception of Rome, the periods of dissolution following imperial falls were equally short. Successor states seldom outlived their founders and disappeared in the next and often larger empire. Only in the wreckage of the Roman Empire, distinguished Robert G. Wesson, a system of full-fledged nation-states evolved and it took a millennium. "It seems almost impossible for a community of free states to reemerge where a universal empire has once stretched across the land and fixed its ways and symbols of authority."<ref>Wesson, Robert G. (1967). ''The Imperial Order''. (Berkeley: University of California Press), p 374.</ref> Some empires, like the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]], [[Median kingdom|Median]] and [[Lydia]]n were outright conquered by a larger empire. The historical pattern was not a simple rise-and-fall cycle; rather it was rise, fall, and greater rise, taking on an increasingly global scale.<ref>[[John M. MacKenzie|MacKenzie, John M.]] (2016). "Empires in world history: Characteristics, concepts, and consequences." ''The Encyclopedia of Empire''. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 9781118440643), vol I, p 1.</ref> [[Raoul Naroll]] called it "expanding pulsation"<ref>Naroll, Raoul, (1967). "Imperial Cycles and World Order," ''Peace Research Society'', 7: pp 83-101.</ref> and [[Ian Morris (historian)|Ian Morris]] "exponential growth"<ref>Morris, Ian (2012). "The evolution of war," ''Cliodynamics'', vol 3 (1): p 23-24.</ref>

[[Peter Turchin]], [[Walter Scheidel]] and [[Rein Taagepera]] demonstrated this millennia-long trend in mathematically calculated graphs. Turchin showed the largest empire in total area for 2800 BC – AD 1800.<ref> Turchin, Peter (2009), "A theory for formation of large empires," ''Journal of Global History'', vol 4: p 201, fig 2, p 205, https://peterturchin.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Turchin_JGH_2009.pdf</ref> Scheidel demonstrated population of the largest empire and three largest empires as a share of world population from 700 BC to AD 2000.<ref>Scheidel, Walter (2021). "The scale of empire: Territory, population, distribution." ''The Oxford World History of Empire''. (Oxford University Press). Vol. 1, p. 97.</ref> Taagepera showed the largest empire in total area and share of world population for 3000 BC - AD 2000<ref>Taagepera, Rein & Nemcok, Miroslav (2024). ''More People, Fewer States: The Past and Future of World Population and Empire Sizes''. (Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42782-1), fig 14.1, 14.2, 14.3, p 228, 230, 233.</ref> and for the same period five largest empires as share of world land and world population.<ref>Taagepera, Rein & Nemcok, Miroslav (2024). ''More People, Fewer States: The Past and Future of World Population and Empire Sizes''. (Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42782-1), fig 4.1, p 51.</ref> The general vector of these graphs, according to Max Ostrovsky, represents a fragment in hyperbola ''[[wikt:arctangent|Y = Arctg X]]'' when the hyperbola takes off.<ref>Ostrovsky, Max (2006). ''Y = Arctg X: The Hyperbola of the World Order''. (Lanham: University Press of America), p 363-364, https://archive.org/details/yarctgxhyperbola0000ostr/page/362/mode/2up?q=arctg&view=theater</ref>

Empires were limited in scope to conquest, as Howe observed, but conquest is a considerable scope. Many fought to the death to avoid it or to be liberated from it. Imperial conquests and attempts of conquest significantly contributed to the [[list of wars by death toll]]. The imperial impact on subjects can be regarded as "little," but only on those subjects who survived the imperial conquest and rule. We cannot ask the inhabitants of [[Carthage]] and [[Masada]], for example, whether empire had little impact on their lives. We seldom hear the voices of subject peoples because history is mostly written by winners.<ref>[[Peter Garnsey|Garnsey, Peter D. A.]] & Whittaker, Charles Richard (1978). ''Imperialism in the Ancient World''. (Cambridge University Press), p 5, https://archive.org/details/p.-d.-a.-garnsey-imperialism-in-the-ancient-world/P.%20D.%20A.%20Garnsey%20-%20Imperialism%20in%20the%20Ancient%20World/page/5/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> The imperial sources tend to ignore or reduce the resistance by subdued states.<ref>Brien, Pierre (2002). ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire''. (tr. Daniels, Peter T. Indiana: Eisenbrauns) p 79.</ref> But two rich primary sources of the subject population are the Hebrew [[Prophetic books]] and the ''[[Sibylline Oracles]]''.<ref>[[Erich S. Gruen|Gruen, Erich S]]. (2020). “The Sibylline Oracles and resistance to Rome.” ''The Future of Rome: Roman, Greek, Jewish and Christian Visions''. (Eds. Price, Jonathan J. & Berthelot, Katell, Cambridge University Press), p 195.</ref><ref>[[Moshe Weinfeld|Weinfeld, Moshe]] (1986). "The protest against imperialism in ancient Israelite prophecy." ''The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations''. (Ed. [[Shmuel Eisenstadt|Eisenstadt, Shmuel]]. Albania: New York State University Press), p 169-182, https://archive.org/details/originsdiversity0000unse/page/168/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> The hatred towards the ruling empires expressed in these sources makes impression of an impact more serious than estimated by Howe. A classical writer and adherent of empire, [[Orosius]] explicitly preferred to avoid the views of subject populations.<ref>Orosius. ''History against the Pagans'', IV:23. (tr. Fear, A. T., Liverpool University Press, 2010).</ref> And another classical Roman patriot, [[Lucan]] confessed that "words cannot express how bitterly we are hated" by subject peoples.<ref>Lucan. ''Civil War'', 7:482. (tr. Braund, S. H., Oxford University Press, 1992).</ref> More subject voices were revealed by Historian Timothy H. Parson in his research of seven empires from the perspective of their subjects.<ref>Parsons, Timothy (2010). ''The Rule of Empires: Those Who Built Them, Those Who Endured Them, and Why They Always Fall''. (New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195304312), https://archive.org/details/ruleofempirestho00pars/page/n7/mode/2up</ref>

Empires were limited in scope to conquest, as Howe observed, but conquest is a considerable scope. Many fought to the death to avoid it or to be liberated from it. Imperial conquests and attempts of conquest significantly contributed to the [[list of wars by death toll]]. The imperial impact on subjects can be regarded as "little," but only on those subjects who survived the imperial conquest and rule. We cannot ask the inhabitants of [[Carthage]] and [[Masada]], for example, whether empire had little impact on their lives. We seldom hear the voices of subject peoples because history is mostly written by winners.<ref>[[Peter Garnsey|Garnsey, Peter D. A.]] & Whittaker, Charles Richard (1978). ''Imperialism in the Ancient World''. (Cambridge University Press), p 5, https://archive.org/details/p.-d.-a.-garnsey-imperialism-in-the-ancient-world/P.%20D.%20A.%20Garnsey%20-%20Imperialism%20in%20the%20Ancient%20World/page/5/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> The imperial sources tend to ignore or reduce the resistance by subdued states.<ref>Brien, Pierre (2002). ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire''. (tr. Daniels, Peter T. Indiana: Eisenbrauns) p 79.</ref> But two rich primary sources of the subject population are the Hebrew [[Prophetic books]] and the ''[[Sibylline Oracles]]''.<ref>[[Erich S. Gruen|Gruen, Erich S]]. (2020). “The Sibylline Oracles and resistance to Rome.” ''The Future of Rome: Roman, Greek, Jewish and Christian Visions''. (Eds. Price, Jonathan J. & Berthelot, Katell, Cambridge University Press), p 195.</ref><ref>[[Moshe Weinfeld|Weinfeld, Moshe]] (1986). "The protest against imperialism in ancient Israelite prophecy." ''The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations''. (Ed. [[Shmuel Eisenstadt|Eisenstadt, Shmuel]]. Albania: New York State University Press), p 169-182, https://archive.org/details/originsdiversity0000unse/page/168/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> The hatred towards the ruling empires expressed in these sources makes impression of an impact more serious than estimated by Howe. A classical writer and adherent of empire, [[Orosius]] explicitly preferred to avoid the views of subject populations.<ref>Orosius. ''History against the Pagans'', IV:23. (tr. Fear, A. T., Liverpool University Press, 2010).</ref> And another classical Roman patriot, [[Lucan]] confessed that "words cannot express how bitterly we are hated" by subject peoples.<ref>Lucan. ''Civil War'', 7:482. (tr. Braund, S. H., Oxford University Press, 1992).</ref> More subject voices were revealed by Historian Timothy H. Parson in his research of seven empires from the perspective of their subjects.<ref>Parsons, Timothy (2010). ''The Rule of Empires: Those Who Built Them, Those Who Endured Them, and Why They Always Fall''. (New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195304312), https://archive.org/details/ruleofempirestho00pars/page/n7/mode/2up</ref>