Aerospace

The border between space and the atmosphere has been proposed as {{convert|100|km|1}} above the ground according to the physical explanation that the air density is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity. This border has been called the [[Kármán line]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Where does space begin? - Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums|url = http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/|website = Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums|access-date = 2015-11-10|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117034012/http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/|archive-date = 2015-11-17}}</ref>

The border between space and the atmosphere has been proposed as {{convert|100|km|1}} above the ground according to the physical explanation that the air density is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity. This border has been called the [[Kármán line]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Where does space begin? - Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums|url = http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/|website = Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums|access-date = 2015-11-10|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117034012/http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/|archive-date = 2015-11-17}}</ref>

=== Emerging technologies ===

In the 2020s, a suite of disruptive innovations has reshaped aerospace:<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolving World of Aerospace: How Technology and Innovation Are Reaching New Heights|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/the-evolving-world-of-aerospace-how-technology-and-innovation-are-reaching-new-heights/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

* Reusable launch systems: Rockets like SpaceX’s Falcon 9 and Blue Origin’s New Shepard now recover and reuse major stages, cutting launch costs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolving World of Aerospace: How Technology and Innovation Are Reaching New Heights|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/the-evolving-world-of-aerospace-how-technology-and-innovation-are-reaching-new-heights/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

* Satellite mega-constellations: Networks such as SpaceX’s Starlink operate thousands of small satellites for global connectivity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolving World of Aerospace: How Technology and Innovation Are Reaching New Heights|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/the-evolving-world-of-aerospace-how-technology-and-innovation-are-reaching-new-heights/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

* Electric and hybrid propulsion: Advances in battery energy density and distributed propulsion enable the first commercial electric and hybrid-electric aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolving World of Aerospace: How Technology and Innovation Are Reaching New Heights|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/the-evolving-world-of-aerospace-how-technology-and-innovation-are-reaching-new-heights/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

* Autonomy and AI: Unmanned aerial systems powered by onboard AI handle logistics and inspection, while digital-twin simulations let engineers test vehicles in software.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolving World of Aerospace: How Technology and Innovation Are Reaching New Heights|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/the-evolving-world-of-aerospace-how-technology-and-innovation-are-reaching-new-heights/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

== Overview ==

== Overview ==

Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as [[spacecraft]] and [[satellite]]s. Some known companies involved in space programs include [[Boeing]], [[Cobham plc|Cobham]], [[Airbus]], [[SpaceX]], [[Lockheed Martin]], [[RTX Corporation]], [[MDA (company)|MDA]] and [[Northrop Grumman]]. These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as the construction of aircraft.

Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as [[spacecraft]] and [[satellite]]s. Some known companies involved in space programs include [[Boeing]], [[Cobham plc|Cobham]], [[Airbus]], [[SpaceX]], [[Lockheed Martin]], [[RTX Corporation]], [[MDA (company)|MDA]] and [[Northrop Grumman]]. These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as the construction of aircraft.

=== Sustainability and environmental impact ===

Governments and industry are targeting aviation’s carbon footprint:

* SAF mandates: National blending requirements aim to cut aviation CO₂ by increasing Sustainable Aviation Fuel usage.

* Air-traffic modernization: Europe’s SESAR and the U.S. NextGen initiatives modernize ATM to reduce fuel burn and emissions.

* Orbital-debris mitigation: UN-endorsed guidelines push operators to deorbit or passivate spacecraft at end-of-life, lowering collision risk.

=== Market structure and economics ===

The aerospace industry remains a growth engine:

* Global market size: The worldwide aerospace market was US\$374 billion in 2024 and is forecast to reach US\$792 billion by 2034.

* Key segments: Commercial aircraft, defense platforms, and space launch/satellite services drive most revenues.

* New entrants: Start-ups like Rocket Lab, Relativity and Virgin Orbit have opened dozens of small-launch and satellite-services niches.

=== Regulation and policy framework ===

A patchwork of laws and agencies governs aerospace:

* Civil aviation regulation: The FAA, EASA and CAAC certify aircraft under standards such as FAR 25 and CS-25.

* Space law and treaties: The 1967 Outer Space Treaty and 1972 Liability Convention define state responsibility and liability.

* Export controls: ITAR and EAR rules restrict transfer of aerospace technology, shaping global partnerships.

== History ==

== History ==

The launch of [[Sputnik]] 1 in October 1957 started the [[Space Age]], and on July 20, 1969 [[Apollo 11]] achieved the first crewed Moon landing.<ref name="Intro to Flight" /> In April 1981, the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] launched, the start of regular crewed access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with "[[Mir]]" in 1986 and is continued by the "[[International Space Station]]".<ref name="Intro to Flight" /> [[Commercialization of space|Space commercialization]] and [[space tourism]] are more recent features of aerospace.

The launch of [[Sputnik]] 1 in October 1957 started the [[Space Age]], and on July 20, 1969 [[Apollo 11]] achieved the first crewed Moon landing.<ref name="Intro to Flight" /> In April 1981, the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] launched, the start of regular crewed access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with "[[Mir]]" in 1986 and is continued by the "[[International Space Station]]".<ref name="Intro to Flight" /> [[Commercialization of space|Space commercialization]] and [[space tourism]] are more recent features of aerospace.

=== Recent milestones in NewSpace ===

* In May 2020, SpaceX’s Demo-2 mission became the first crewed orbital launch by a private company.

* The early 2020s saw the first private lunar landers (e.g. Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus) and space-tourism flights by Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin.

* By mid-2025, over half a dozen companies—including Axiom Space—have flown paying customers into orbit.

==Manufacturing==

==Manufacturing==

* Blockley, Richard, and Wei Shyy. ''Encyclopedia of aerospace engineering'' (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2010).

* Blockley, Richard, and Wei Shyy. ''Encyclopedia of aerospace engineering'' (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2010).

* Brunton, Steven L., et al. "Data-driven aerospace engineering: reframing the industry with machine learning." ''AIAA Journal''. 59.8 (2021): 2820-2847. [https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/1.J060131?download=true online]

* Brunton, Steven L., et al. "Data-driven aerospace engineering: reframing the industry with machine learning." ''AIAA Journal''. 59.8 (2021): 2820-2847. [https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/1.J060131?download=true online]

* Davis, Jeffrey R., Robert Johnson, and Jan Stepanek, eds. ''Fundamentals of aerospace medicine'' (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=_6hymYAgC6MC&dq=aerospace&pg=PR3 online].

* Davis, Jeffrey R., Robert Johnson, and Jan Stepanek, eds. ''Fundamentals of aerospace medicine'' (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=_6hymYAgC6MC&dq=aerospace&pg=PR3 online].

* Lewallen, Mathew J., "Johannes Kepler," AerospacePost, July 3 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Johannes Kepler|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/johannes-kepler/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

* Lewallen, Mathew J., "Air and Space Traffic Deconfliction," AerospacePost, June 30 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Air and Space Traffic Deconfliction|url=https://www.aerospacepost.com/blog/air-and-space-traffic-deconfliction/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=AerospacePost}}</ref>

* Mouritz, Adrian P. ''Introduction to aerospace materials'' (Elsevier, 2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=U5RwAgAAQBAJ&dq=aerospace&pg=PP1 online].

* Mouritz, Adrian P. ''Introduction to aerospace materials'' (Elsevier, 2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=U5RwAgAAQBAJ&dq=aerospace&pg=PP1 online].